trailHadronic interaction models reliably predict the air-shower observables used to infer cosmic-ray composition
Pierre Auger Observatory shower-maximum measurements indicate cosmic-ray composition becomes heavier above about 2×10^18 eV
The highest-energy cosmic rays include a substantial proton fraction.
Collider anchoring and cross-model consistency· for
LHC measurements constrain hadronic interaction models used in air-shower simulation up to equivalent energies of about 10^17 eV
atomic
Mass-composition trends inferred from shower-maximum measurements are qualitatively consistent across current hadronic interaction models
atomic
Demonstrated data–model discrepancies· against
Measured air showers contain more muons than simulations with current hadronic interaction models predict
Auger measurements show ground-level muon signals well above hadronic interaction model predictions
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A combined analysis of muon measurements from nine air-shower experiments finds a muon excess over simulations growing with energy above 10 PeV
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Auger hybrid data are best described when hadronic model predictions are shifted to deeper shower maxima and larger ground-level hadronic signals
shared · shown elsewhere
Post-LHC hadronic interaction models differ in predicted mean shower-maximum depth by roughly 20 to 30 g/cm²
atomic
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Hadronic interaction models reliably predict the air-shower observables used to infer cosmic-ray composition
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