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Claims
Search the graph by meaning. Each result carries its current verdict; open one to see its decomposition, provenance, and the reasoning behind the assessment.
ShowingImportancePrizesTopicCosmic rays
High-energy particles from space (protons, nuclei, photons) and their cascades in the atmosphere. Covers origin, acceleration, composition, energy spectrum, anisotropy, propagation, and extensive air showers, including detector measurements and their interpretation via air-shower simulations. Solar/gamma-ray astronomy and accelerator-only particle physics do not belong here.
Black holes produced by cosmic ray collisions with stationary matter would move at nearly the speed of light
VerifiedThe claim traces to reliable primary sources through a clear chain of evidence.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Micro black holesLHC safetyimportance · settledImportance 0.15, from 0 to 1 · settled: uncontested, so low even when much depends on it. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
A combined analysis of muon measurements from nine air-shower experiments finds a muon excess over simulations growing with energy above 10 PeV
VerifiedThe claim traces to reliable primary sources through a clear chain of evidence.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Muon excess in extensive air showersimportance · minorImportance 0.35, from 0 to 1 · minor: narrow or largely settled, cheap to get right. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
Auger hybrid data are best described when hadronic model predictions are shifted to deeper shower maxima and larger ground-level hadronic signals
SupportedEvidence favors the claim, but the chain is incomplete or the sources are secondary.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Hadronic interaction modelsPierre Auger ObservatoryMuon excess in extensive air showersimportance · minorImportance 0.35, from 0 to 1 · minor: narrow or largely settled, cheap to get right. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
Auger measurements show ground-level muon signals well above hadronic interaction model predictions
VerifiedThe claim traces to reliable primary sources through a clear chain of evidence.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Muon excess in extensive air showersPierre Auger ObservatoryHadronic interaction modelsimportance · minorImportance 0.35, from 0 to 1 · minor: narrow or largely settled, cheap to get right. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
Cosmic ray collisions with Earth's atmosphere reach energies exceeding LHC collision energies.
VerifiedThe claim traces to reliable primary sources through a clear chain of evidence.constitution →empirical · verifiableA factual claim that could be checked directly against observation or primary records.constitution →Particle physicsLHC safetyimportance · settledImportance 0.20, from 0 to 1 · settled: uncontested, so low even when much depends on it. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
Measured air showers contain more muons than simulations with current hadronic interaction models predict
SupportedEvidence favors the claim, but the chain is incomplete or the sources are secondary.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Muon excess in extensive air showersHadronic interaction modelsimportance · notableImportance 0.45, from 0 to 1 · notable: a contested point in a live debate (also the default before judging). Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
Ultra-high-energy cosmic rays strike white dwarfs and neutron stars at astrophysically significant rates.
SupportedEvidence favors the claim, but the chain is incomplete or the sources are secondary.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Neutron Star Exotic PhysicsWhite dwarfsimportance · minorImportance 0.30, from 0 to 1 · minor: narrow or largely settled, cheap to get right. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
The highest-energy cosmic rays include a substantial proton fraction.
ContestedCredible evidence or argument exists on multiple sides.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →UHECR mass compositionimportance · minorImportance 0.35, from 0 to 1 · minor: narrow or largely settled, cheap to get right. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
Pierre Auger Observatory shower-maximum measurements indicate cosmic-ray composition becomes heavier above about 2×10^18 eV
SupportedEvidence favors the claim, but the chain is incomplete or the sources are secondary.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Ultra-high-energy cosmic-ray compositionPierre Auger Observatoryimportance · minorImportance 0.35, from 0 to 1 · minor: narrow or largely settled, cheap to get right. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
If TeV-scale black hole production is possible in particle collisions, cosmic rays striking white dwarfs or neutron stars would produce such black holes.
SupportedEvidence favors the claim, but the chain is incomplete or the sources are secondary.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Micro black holesNeutron Star Exotic PhysicsLHC safetyimportance · minorImportance 0.40, from 0 to 1 · minor: narrow or largely settled, cheap to get right. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
Stable microscopic black holes produced by cosmic rays striking white dwarfs or neutron stars would be stopped inside those stars, whether charged or neutral.
SupportedEvidence favors the claim, but the chain is incomplete or the sources are secondary.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Micro black holesAstrophysicsNeutron Star Exotic Physicsimportance · minorImportance 0.40, from 0 to 1 · minor: narrow or largely settled, cheap to get right. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
Shower-maximum measurements provide a reliable baseline for the composition-dependent muon content expected in air showers
UnassessedNo current assessment. Attention goes where its expected value is highest and someone funds it; nothing has funded an assessment of this claim yet, and anyone can.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Muon excess in extensive air showersUltra-high-energy cosmic-ray compositionHadronic interaction modelsimportance · minorImportance 0.30, from 0 to 1 · minor: narrow or largely settled, cheap to get right. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
Cosmic-ray flux provides a valid universal reference for cross-calibrating energy scales across air-shower experiments
UnassessedNo current assessment. Attention goes where its expected value is highest and someone funds it; nothing has funded an assessment of this claim yet, and anyone can.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Cosmic-ray energy scale calibrationimportance · minorImportance 0.30, from 0 to 1 · minor: narrow or largely settled, cheap to get right. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
Muon measurements from KASCADE-Grande, EAS-MSU, and Yakutsk are consistent with hadronic interaction model predictions
UnassessedNo current assessment. Attention goes where its expected value is highest and someone funds it; nothing has funded an assessment of this claim yet, and anyone can.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Muon excess in extensive air showersHadronic interaction modelsimportance · minorImportance 0.30, from 0 to 1 · minor: narrow or largely settled, cheap to get right. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
Mass-composition trends inferred from shower-maximum measurements are qualitatively consistent across current hadronic interaction models
UnassessedNo current assessment. Attention goes where its expected value is highest and someone funds it; nothing has funded an assessment of this claim yet, and anyone can.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Hadronic interaction modelsUltra-high-energy cosmic-ray compositionimportance · minorImportance 0.30, from 0 to 1 · minor: narrow or largely settled, cheap to get right. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
Post-LHC hadronic interaction models differ in predicted mean shower-maximum depth by roughly 20 to 30 g/cm²
UnassessedNo current assessment. Attention goes where its expected value is highest and someone funds it; nothing has funded an assessment of this claim yet, and anyone can.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Hadronic interaction modelsimportance · minorImportance 0.25, from 0 to 1 · minor: narrow or largely settled, cheap to get right. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
Hadronic interaction models reliably predict the air-shower observables used to infer cosmic-ray composition
UnassessedNo current assessment. Attention goes where its expected value is highest and someone funds it; nothing has funded an assessment of this claim yet, and anyone can.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Hadronic interaction modelsUltra-high-energy cosmic-ray compositionimportance · minorImportance 0.30, from 0 to 1 · minor: narrow or largely settled, cheap to get right. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
Telescope Array shower-maximum measurements are consistent with a predominantly protonic composition up to about 10^19 eV
UnassessedNo current assessment. Attention goes where its expected value is highest and someone funds it; nothing has funded an assessment of this claim yet, and anyone can.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Ultra-high-energy cosmic-ray compositionTelescope Arrayimportance · minorImportance 0.30, from 0 to 1 · minor: narrow or largely settled, cheap to get right. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
Cosmic rays with energies exceeding LHC collision energies have struck Earth for billions of years without causing catastrophe.
UnassessedNo current assessment. Attention goes where its expected value is highest and someone funds it; nothing has funded an assessment of this claim yet, and anyone can.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →LHC safetyParticle physicsimportance · settledImportance 0.20, from 0 to 1 · settled: uncontested, so low even when much depends on it. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
Strong magnetic fields shield most neutron stars from charged ultra-high-energy cosmic rays.
UnassessedNo current assessment. Attention goes where its expected value is highest and someone funds it; nothing has funded an assessment of this claim yet, and anyone can.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Neutron Star Exotic Physicsimportance · minorImportance 0.30, from 0 to 1 · minor: narrow or largely settled, cheap to get right. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
Cosmic-ray and terrestrial searches have found no confirmed strangelets
UnassessedNo current assessment. Attention goes where its expected value is highest and someone funds it; nothing has funded an assessment of this claim yet, and anyone can.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Strangeletsimportance · minorImportance 0.25, from 0 to 1 · minor: narrow or largely settled, cheap to get right. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
Stable neutral black holes produced by cosmic rays would pass through Earth without being gravitationally captured
VerifiedThe claim traces to reliable primary sources through a clear chain of evidence.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Micro black holesBlack hole physicsLHC safetyimportance · minorImportance 0.25, from 0 to 1 · minor: narrow or largely settled, cheap to get right. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
Radiative losses in strong neutron-star magnetospheres degrade incoming ultra-high-energy protons' energy before surface impact.
UnassessedNo current assessment. Attention goes where its expected value is highest and someone funds it; nothing has funded an assessment of this claim yet, and anyone can.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Neutron Star Exotic PhysicsAstrophysicsimportance · settledImportance 0.15, from 0 to 1 · settled: uncontested, so low even when much depends on it. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
A typical neutron star's magnetic cutoff rigidity exceeds the rigidities of most observed ultra-high-energy cosmic rays.
UnassessedNo current assessment. Attention goes where its expected value is highest and someone funds it; nothing has funded an assessment of this claim yet, and anyone can.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Hillas Rigidity CriterionNeutron Star Exotic Physicsimportance · settledImportance 0.15, from 0 to 1 · settled: uncontested, so low even when much depends on it. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
The mass composition of ultra-high-energy cosmic rays at a given energy is independent of arrival zenith angle
UnassessedNo current assessment. Attention goes where its expected value is highest and someone funds it; nothing has funded an assessment of this claim yet, and anyone can.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Ultra-high-energy cosmic-ray compositionimportance · settledImportance 0.15, from 0 to 1 · settled: uncontested, so low even when much depends on it. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
LHC measurements constrain hadronic interaction models used in air-shower simulation up to equivalent energies of about 10^17 eV
UnassessedNo current assessment. Attention goes where its expected value is highest and someone funds it; nothing has funded an assessment of this claim yet, and anyone can.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Hadronic interaction modelsimportance · settledImportance 0.15, from 0 to 1 · settled: uncontested, so low even when much depends on it. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
Shower-to-shower fluctuations of shower-maximum depth measured by the Pierre Auger Observatory decrease with energy above about 2×10^18 eV
UnassessedNo current assessment. Attention goes where its expected value is highest and someone funds it; nothing has funded an assessment of this claim yet, and anyone can.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Pierre Auger ObservatoryUltra-high-energy cosmic-ray compositionimportance · settledImportance 0.20, from 0 to 1 · settled: uncontested, so low even when much depends on it. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
The mean shower-maximum depth measured by the Pierre Auger Observatory increases more slowly with energy above about 2×10^18 eV than expected for constant composition
UnassessedNo current assessment. Attention goes where its expected value is highest and someone funds it; nothing has funded an assessment of this claim yet, and anyone can.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →Ultra-high-energy cosmic-ray compositionPierre Auger Observatoryimportance · settledImportance 0.20, from 0 to 1 · settled: uncontested, so low even when much depends on it. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
Some white dwarfs have magnetic fields weak enough for ultra-high-energy cosmic rays to reach their surfaces.
UnassessedNo current assessment. Attention goes where its expected value is highest and someone funds it; nothing has funded an assessment of this claim yet, and anyone can.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →White dwarfsimportance · settledImportance 0.20, from 0 to 1 · settled: uncontested, so low even when much depends on it. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
Cosmic rays with energies above 10^18 eV are observed.
UnassessedNo current assessment. Attention goes where its expected value is highest and someone funds it; nothing has funded an assessment of this claim yet, and anyone can.constitution →empirical · derivedA factual claim that rests on inference from other evidence rather than direct observation.constitution →importance · settledImportance 0.10, from 0 to 1 · settled: uncontested, so low even when much depends on it. Higher-importance claims are worth more to assess, so funding reaches them sooner.constitution →
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